Climbing Safely
Most climbers do a good job coping with the hazards of their sport, yet more than 100 climbing accidents occur in the park every year. What factors contribute to them? What, if anything, can climbers do to avoid them? And just how dangerous is climbing, anyway? With these questions in mind, the National Park Service (NPS) recently examined most of the serious accidents that occurred in the park during the years from 1970 through 1990. The conclusions provide interesting reading for those wishing to stay alive.
Environmental Dangers
Big Wall Bivouacs
Climbing Unroped
Leading
The Belay Chain
Helmets
States of Mind
Risk, Responsibility, and the Limits to Climbing
Other Notes
Analysis of Climbing Accidents
Fifty-one climbers died from traumatic injuries in that period. A dozen more,
critically hurt, would have died without rapid transport and medical treatment.
In addition, there were many serious but survivable injuries, from fractured
skulls to broken legs (at least 50 fractures per year), and a much larger number
of cuts, bruises, and sprains.
Not surprisingly, most injuries occurred during leader falls and involved feet,
ankles, or lower legs; for many, these are the accepted risks of climbing.
However, leader falls accounted for only 25% of the fatal and near-fatal
traumatic injuries; roughly 10% were from rockfall, 25% from being deliberately
unroped, and 40% from simple mistakes with gear. Many cases are not clear cut;
several factors may share the credit, and it is sometimes hard to quantify the
weird adventures climbers have.
Not to be overlooked in the body count are environmental injuries. Inadequately
equipped for the weather, four climbers died of hypothermia and perhaps 45 more
would have died of the cold or heat if not rescued.
Fifteen to 25 parties require an NPS rescue each year. Sixty more climbers
stagger into Yosemite's medical clinic on their own, and an unknown number
escape statistical immortality by seeking treatment outside the park (or at the
Mountain Room Bar).
Most Yosemite victims are experienced climbers, 60% have been climbing for three
years or more, lead at least 5.10, are in good condition, and climb frequently.
Short climbs and big walls, easy routes and desperate ones - all get their share
of the accidents.
The NPS keeps no statistics on how many climbers use the park, but 25,000 to
50,000 climber-days annually is a fair estimate. With this in mind, 2.5 deaths
and a few serious injuries per year may seem a pretty low rate. It's much too
high, however, if your climbing career is cut short by a broken hip, or worse.
It's also too high when you consider that at least 80% of the fatalities and
many injuries, were easily preventable. In case after case, ignorance, a casual
attitude, and/or some form of distraction proved to be the most dangerous
aspects of the sport.
As the saying goes, "good judgment comes from bad experience." In the pages
that follow are condensed 21 years of bad experience - the situations Yosemite
climbers faced, the mistakes they made, and some recommendations for avoiding
bad experiences of your own. This information comes in many cases from the
victims' own analysis or from those of their peers.
Environmental Dangers
On October 11, 1983 a climber on El Cap collapsed from heat exhaustion. On
October 11, 1984, a party on Washington Column was immobilized by hypothermia.
You can expect this range of weather year round.
Heat. No Yosemite climber has died from heat, but a half-dozen parties have come
close. Too exhausted to move, they survived only because death by drying-up is a
relatively slow process, allowing rescuers time to get there.
Temperatures on the sunny walls often exceed 100° Fahrenheit, but even in cool
weather, climbing all day requires lots of water. The generally accepted
minimum, two quarts per person per day, is just that - a minimum. It may not
replace what you use, so don't let the desire for a light haul bag be your
overriding concern, and take extra for unanticipated delays. Do not put all your
water in a single container, and watch out for leaks.
If you find yourself rationing water, remember that dehydration will seriously
sap your strength, slowing you even further. It's not uncommon to go from mere
thirst to a complete standstill in a single day. Continuing up may be the right
choice but several climbers have said, "I should have gone down while I could."
Storms. We still hear climbers say, "It never rains in Yosemite." In fact, there
are serious storms year-round. Four climbers have died of hypothermia and almost
50 have been rescued, most of whom would not have survived otherwise. Several
were very experienced, with winter alpine routes, Yosemite walls, and stormy
bivouacs to their credit - experts, by most measures. In many cases they took
sub-standard gear, added another mistake or two, and couldn't deal with the
water.
Mountain thunderstorms are common in spring, summer and fall. They may appear
suddenly out of a clear blue sky and rapidly shift position, their approach
concealed by the route you are on. A few minutes warning may be all that you
get. Thunderstorms may last only a couple of hours, but they are very intense,
with huge amounts of near-freezing water often mixed with hail, strong winds,
and lightning. The runoff can be a foot deep and fast enough to cause rockfall.
A common result is a panicky retreat, a jammed rope, and cries for help. (The
standard joke is that someone will drown on a Tuolumne climb one of these days.
It's actually possible.)
No climber has died in such a storm yet because rescuers were able to respond.
No climbers have died from lightning either, but there have been several near
misses, and hikers on Half Dome and elsewhere have been killed. Get out of the
way of a thunderstorm as fast as you can, and avoid summits and projections.
The big Pacific storm systems have proven more dangerous. They sweep through the
Sierra at any time of year, most frequently from September through May. They are
unpredictable, often appearing back-to-back after several weeks of gorgeous,
mind-numbing weather. It may rain on Half Dome in January and snow there in
July. These storms are dangerous because they are usually warm enough to be wet,
even in winter, yet always cold enough to kill an unprotected climber. They last
from one to several days, offering little respite if you can't escape.
With no soil to absorb it, rain on the walls quickly collects into streams and
waterfalls, pouring off overhangs and down the corner you're trying to climb up
or sleep in. Wind blows the water in all directions, including straight up. It
may rip apart a plastic tube tent or blow a portaledge up and down until the
tubing breaks or the fly rips. Overhanging faces and other "sheltered" spots are
not always immune - rain and waterfalls several yards away may be blown directly
into your bivy, and runoff will wick down your anchor rope. Even a slow but
steady leak into your shelter can defeat you. Temperatures may drop, freezing
solid the next pitch, your ropes, and your wet sleeping bag.
Once cold and wet, you are in real trouble and your options run out. If you
leave your shelter to climb or rappel, you deteriorate more rapidly from the
wind and water. Even with good gear, water runs down your sleeve every time you
reach up. As your body temperature drops, you begin making dumb mistakes, such
as clipping in wrong and dropping your rack. You are seriously hypothermic, and
soon you will just hang there, no longer caring. It happens quickly. In two
separate incidents, climbers on the last pitch of The Nose left what protection
they had to make a run for the top. They all died on that pitch.
Staying put may be no better. If you need help, no one may see you or hear you,
and reaching you may take days longer than in good weather. Survivors say they
had no idea how helpless they'd be until it happened to them. To find out for
yourself, stand in the spray of a garden hose on a cold, windy night. How long
will you last?
Big Wall Bivouacs
Despite this grim scenario, reasonable precautions will turn stormy big-wall
bivouacs into mere annoyances:
All such hints and tricks aside, the bottom line is your ability to sit out the
storm. Your first priority is to keep the wind and outside water away. Second is
to be insulated enough to stay warm, even though you are wet from your own
condensation.
Unplanned Bivouacs. Getting caught by darkness is common, especially on the
longer one-day climbs and descent routes, e.g., Royal Arches and Cathedral
Rocks. It happens easily - a late start, a slow partner, off route, a jammed or
dropped rope, or a sprained ankle. Usually it's nothing to get upset about, but
if you are unprepared, even a cold wind or a mild storm becomes serious. One
death and several close calls occurred this way. To avoid becoming a statistic:
Loose Rock: There's plenty of it in Yosemite. Ten percent of all injuries are
associated with rockfall, including six deaths and one permanent disability. In
several other deaths, loose rock was implicated but not confirmed, e.g.,
possible broken handholds and failed placements. Spontaneous rockfall is not the
problem - all the fatal and serious accidents were triggered by the victim, the
rope, or by the climbers above.
Rocks lying on ledges and in steep gullies are obviously dangerous. Not so
obvious is that old reliable mantle block, five times your weight, wedged in
place, and worn smooth by previous climbers. Yet with distressing regularity,
"bombproof" blocks, flakes, and even ledges collapse under body weight, split
out cams, or fracture from the pressure of a piton. The forces placed on anchors
and protection, even from rappelling, may be far higher than you generate in a
test. Handholds may pass you scrutiny, then fail in mid-move. The rock you pull
off can break your leg after falling only a couple of feet. Finally, watch out
for rotten rock, responsible for at least two of these fatalities. It's common
on the last couple of pitches of climbs that go to the rim of the Valley, e.g.,
Yosemite Point Buttress and Washington Column.
The East Buttress of Middle Cathedral Rock is a well-known bowling alley, the
site of many rockfall injuries. The Northwest Face of Half Dome is another, with
the added excitement of tourist "firing squads" on the summit. But the most
dangerous, surprisingly, may be El Cap; on rock so steep, loose blocks balance
precariously and big flakes wait for an unlucky hand to trigger the final
fracture.
Some rockfall accidents may not be preventable, short of staying home, but being
alert to the hazard and following a few guidelines will cut the injury rate:
Everybody does it, to some extent. There's no reason to stop, but good reason to
be cautious: fourteen climbers were killed and two critically injured while
deliberately unroped. At least eight climbed 5.10 or better. Most, if not all,
of those accidents were avoidable. You may find yourself unroped in several
situations - on third-class terrain, spontaneously on fifth-class, and while
deliberately free-soloing a route.
Third class terrain may be easy, but add a bit of sand, loose or wet rock,
darkness, plus a moment of distraction, and the rating becomes meaningless. Four
climbers have died this way, typically on approach and descent routes such as
North Dome Gully, all in spots that did not demand a rope.
Sometimes you lose the way on the approach, or unrope at what you thought was
the top of the climb, only to find a few feet of "easy" fifth-class blocking
your way. Your rope is tucked away in your pack, and you're in a hurry. Before
you go on, remember that you didn't plan to free-solo an unknown quantity today.
Four died this way, falling from fifth-class terrain that they were climbing on
the spur of the moment.
Seven of the 14 killed were rappelling or otherwise tied in. They unroped while
still on fifth-class rock, for various reasons of convenience, without clipping
into a nearby anchor. Three slipped off their stances, a ledge collapsed under
another, one decided to down-climb the last few feet, and two tried to climb
their rappel ropes hand-over-hand to attend to some problem. Like the previous
group, they all went unroped onto fifth-class terrain on the spur of the moment.
In addition, they all had a belay immediately available. Did its nearness give
them a false sense of security?
No true free-soloer has been killed yet, although one, critically hurt, survived
only by the speed of his rescue. A death will happen eventually, possibly the
result of a loose hold. Is the free-soloer more alert to the task, having
planned it in advance, than those who unroped on the spur of the moment? Were
the unlucky fourteen still relaxed in their minds, not quite attuned to their
new situation? We can only speculate.
Keep these cases and the hidden hazards in mind as you travel through any steep
terrain. Be aware of what is under foot, and in hand, at each moment. Be patient
enough to retrace your steps to find the easy way, and if there's a belay
hanging in front of you, think twice before rejecting it. Finally, remember that
your climbing ability has probably been measured on clean, rated routes, not on
unpredictable sand and wet moss. Being a 5.11 climber does not mean you can fly.
Leading
Nine climbers died and six were critically injured in leader- fall accidents
involving inadequate protection. Most fell simply because the moves were hard,
and several were victims of broken holds. They were all injured because they hit
something before their protection stopped them. Either they did not place enough
protection (one-third of the cases) or it failed under the force of the fall
(the remaining two-thirds). In every case, their injuries were serious because
they fell headfirst or on their sides - the head, neck, or trunk took a lethal
blow. Half fell 50 feet or less, the climber falling the shortest distance (25
feet) died, and the longest (270 feet!) survived.
Were these catastrophes avoidable? It's sometimes hard to tell, but the answer
is often yes. Here are a few lessons frequently learned the hard way:
About falling. There's an art to falling safely - like a cat. Bouldering helps
build the alertness required. Controlling your fall may be out of the question
on those 200-foot screamers, but it will reduce the risk of injury from routine
falls. Whenever possible, land on your feet - even if it breaks your leg,
absorbing the shock this way may save your life. Laybacks and underclings hold
special risk in this regard - you are already leaning back, and if you lose your
grip the friction of your feet on the rock may rotate you into a headfirst - and
backward - dive.
Learning to Lead. Four of the 15 killed or critically injured in leader falls
were good climbers on well-defined routes, but the majority were intermediates,
often off-route. There may be a couple of lessons in that.
Whether you are climbing, rappelling, or just sitting on a ledge, the belay
chain is what connects you to the rock. There are many links, and mistakes with
almost every one have killed 22 climbers, 40% of all Yosemite climbing
fatalities. In every case the cause was human error. In every case the death was
completely preventable, not by the subtle skills of placing protection on the
lead, but by some simple precaution to keep the belay chain intact. Experienced
climbers outnumbered the inexperienced in this category, two to one.
Mistakes with the belay chain occur at any time. Make one and you'll fall to the
end of the rope ... or farther. Minor injuries are rare. Here are some key points
to remember:
These cases illustrate one of the rules most commonly overlooked: BACK YOURSELF
UP. No matter what initially pulled, broke, slipped, jammed, or cut, the
incident became an accident because the climber did not carefully ask himself,
"What if...?" By leaving yourself open, you are betting against a variety of
unpredictable events. You don't lose very often, but when you do, you may lose
very big.
Beginners! From your first day on the rock, you have the right to inspect, and
ask questions about, any system to which you've committed your life. It's a good
way to learn, and a good way to stay alive. If your partner or instructor is
offended, find someone else to climb with. Never change the system or the plan,
however, without your partner's knowledge.
While we can never know for certain, helmets might have made a difference in
roughly 25% of the fatal and critical trauma cases. They would have
significantly increased - but not guaranteed - the survival chances for five of
those fatalities. Furthermore, helmets would have offered excellent protection
against less serious fractures, concussions, and lacerations.
Most deaths, however, involved impacts of overwhelming force or mortal wounds
other than to the head, i.e., beyond the protection offered by a helmet. This is
not an argument against helmets; the point is, a helmet doesn't make you
invincible. What goes on inside your head is more important than what you wear
on it.
When to wear a helmet is a personal choice, but it is especially recommended for
the following: beginners pushing their skills, roped solo climbing, a high risk
of a bad fall or of ice fall (several El Cap routes in winter and spring), and
for all approaches, descents, and climbing routes that are crowded and/or
particularly loose. (See Loose Rock)
States of Mind
This is the key to safety. It's impossible to know how many climbers were killed
by haste or overconfidence, but many survivors will tell you that they somehow
lost their good judgement long enough to get hurt. It's a complex subject and
sometimes a touchy one. Nevertheless, at least three states of mind frequently
contribute to accidents: ignorance, casualness, and distraction.
Ignorance. There is always more to learn, and even the most conscientious climber
can get into trouble if unaware of the danger ("I thought it never rained...").
Here are some ways to fight ignorance:
Casualness. "I just didn't take it seriously," is a common lament. It's often
correct, but it's more a symptom than a cause - there may be deeper reasons for
underestimating your risk. Ignorance is one, and here are some more:
An adequate state of mind is like good physical conditioning: it doesn't happen
overnight, and it takes constant practice, but the payoff in both safety and fun
is well worth it. Stay aware of your mental state: Are you uneasy before this
climb? Learn to recognize that, and ask yourself why, and deal with it. Are you
taking shortcuts on this pitch? Could it be you're distracted? Stop, get your
act together, then go.
Who Pays for Rescues? The taxpayer does; the NPS does not charge for the cost of
rescues, except for any ambulance services required. This is true even if you
are fined by the courts for negligence, which is a separate charge altogether
(see below). But rescues can be expensive and what the future holds is anybody's
guess. The NPS is examining the possibility of charging all victims for the full
cost of their rescues, and partial costs are charged in some parks now. This
issue is complex, but it is clear that responsible behavior by those who use the
park will minimize the threat.
The NPS has no regulations specifying how you must climb. There is one
regulation, however, requiring that all park users act responsibly. This applies
to climbers, in that the consequences of your actions put rescuers and other
climbers at risk. One rescuer has been killed in the park, so far. Thus, if your
own negligence got you in trouble, you may be charged with "creating a hazardous
condition" for others. As an example, a climber was fined because he became
stranded by a hailstorm while attempting to free-solo the Steck-Salathé on
Sentinel Rock. Storms had been predicted, and his rescue should not have been
necessary.
Even avoidable accidents are understandable, thus legal charges are not
frequently filed. Of all park users, however, climbers should be particularly
aware - they know that their sport is dangerous, that safety lies in education
and training, and that there is an information network available.
So take what you'll need with you on the climb, or have competent friends ready
to back you up. The climber stranded on Sentinel, for example, could have been
rescued by friends without NPS participation or knowledge - the way it must
often be done on expeditions. Freedom of expression and responsibility need not
be incompatible.
Climbing will always be risky. It should be clear, however, that a reduced
accident rate is possible without seriously restricting the sport. The party in
its fifth day on The Nose and the party passing them in its fifth hour may each
be climbing safely or be blindly out of control. You have a right to choose your
own climbing style and level of risk, but you owe it to yourself and everyone
else to make that choice with your eyes wide open.
Other Notes
Voluntary Registration System. If you wish, you may register at the Valley
Visitor Center before you climb. However, the NPS does not monitor your progress
at any time; the registration information you provide is used only if someone
reports that you are overdue. Your best insurance is a friend that checks on you
frequently.
To Report An Emergency. From a public phone, dial 911. No money is needed to make
the call. Stay at the phone until a ranger arrives, unless you are specifically
given other instructions.
Accident/Hazard Reporting. If you know of dangerous route conditions such as
loose rock or bad anchors, consider posting he information on the bulletin board
at Camp Four (irreverently called Sunnyside by the NPS). Your information will
help other climbers.
Fixed Gear Warning. The park is a Wilderness Area, not an urban climbing wall -
the NPS does not inspect or maintain climbing or descent routes, including fixed
anchors, loose rock or any other feature. You are strictly on your own.
Recently, there have been those involved in upgrading the quality of the fixed
anchors (some of which are 30 years old) that are found on many climbs. A
selfless act and an incredible amount of work and expense, the result benefits
all climbers. In addition, the removal of old gear has demonstrated just how
unreliable fixed anchors can be. Some examples: fixed slings on Half Dome
(clearly having seen repeated use as rappel anchors) were found to be simply
jammed in a crack, not actually attached to anything! Relatively new 3/8-inch
bolts on Middle Cathedral were found to be placed in a hole drilled too big, and
held in place merely with latex caulk! Not specifically mentioned are the many
old 1/4-inch bolts that failed with a simple pull. If you do replace old bolts,
use the same hole, and be certain of your ability to place lasting anchors.
Fixed pins should be replaced or removed before the eyes are broken.
Many single old 1/4-inch bolts have been placed off-route as emergency rappel
anchors over the years. They may falsely entice the novice off route and/or
provide the false presumption that they provide a safe way down. These bolts
should not be trusted for anything!
A great habit is to carry spare slings to replace old ones at rappel stations to
help amortize route maintenance throughout the climbing community.
Tossing Haul Bags. Do not throw your haul bag off a wall. You cannot always be
sure the coast is clear, and the bag will drift in the wind. No one has been
hurt yet, but it will happen - there have been a few close calls. Bag-tossing
also creates a carnival atmosphere, a big mess (of your gear), and lots of false
alarms for rescuers. (Tourists usually think it's a body.)
Sources of Information. Try the local climbers, found in the parking lot at Camp
Four, the bulletin board at the Camp Four kiosk, the Mountain Shop, the Visitor
Center at Yosemite Village, any ranger, or the NPS library (next to the Visitor
Center). The library is the home of the American Alpine Club's Sierra Nevada
Branch Library. It carries magazines, journals, and books on all aspects of
climbing, mountaineering, and natural history.
Links to Climbing Information Sites
Climb on Safely from the Boy Scouts of America
Rock Climbing Safety from Cool Sports
Climbing Gear Videos from Expert Village (scroll to the bottom)